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Introduction to Foxglove (Digitalis Purpurea)

In the millennia that mankind has been on earth, uncounted millions of people have died from heart ailments. One type of malfunction is now called congestive heart failure, but once it was called dropsy. Some, but not all, of the symptoms of this problem are: fatigue, edema of the abdomen, legs and ankles, inability to sleep, shortness of breath, increased urination and nausea.

It is interesting that some medications are derived from plants that grow naturally in the environment. These medications can be called natural remedies, because they grow in nature and are also effective in treating ailments. One such plant is foxglove.

The foxglove plant is covered with large blossoms, often in shades of purple or pink. It is a beautiful plant that has some unusual characteristics, including being poisonous when it is eaten.

Foxglove is native to both western and eastern Europe, but it can now be found in all parts of the world. It grows in the wild, often in mountainous and forested areas and also along roadsides. While it grows in the wild, it is now also grown and harvested as a crop so it can be processed for medical purposes.

The History of Foxglove

Foxglove has been called by many different names in different times and at different places. Some of the more common names applied to foxglove include: deadmen’s bells, common foxglove, fairy’s glove, witch’s bell, purple foxglove, folk’s glove, virgin’s glove, bloody fingers and fairy’s caps. It can be noted that all of these names refer to the appearance, size, shape and color of the blossoms. People have long admired this plant because of its long, beautiful, purplish or pinkish bell-shaped blossoms that grow up and down long, slender stalks. The plants can be from three feet to six feet high. The fact that it is poisonous also tends to get people’s attention.

Modern medicine owes a great debt of gratitude to the early doctors and researchers who studied and learned the healing properties of so many herbal natural remedies, including foxglove. The first time that foxglove is mentioned in relation to being used as a medication was in the 13th century. It was first used and written about in Ireland and then later in Scotland. It was utilized in the attempt to treat a number of unrelated illnesses.

The credit for developing foxglove into an effective medication goes to Dr. William Withering. He was a British physician, who lived from 1741 to 1799. Dr. Withering became aware that people were using foxglove to treat what was then called dropsy and that it was an effective treatment for that condition. No one understood the “why” of the healing properties of this plant, so he made it his life’s work to discover why it worked and how to use foxglove more effectively. In 1785, he published his findings.

Dr. Withering discovered digitalis, an active ingredient in foxglove. After isolating and identifying this substance, he continued to study and learn the properties of this medication that has been such a boon to mankind. On a personal note, Dr. Withering was a genuinely good man. Each year, he treated 2000 to 3000 poor patients who could not afford to pay him. This limited his income to about 1000 British pounds per year, while his peers were earning about 5000 British pounds per year. After years of suffering from tuberculosis, he died in 1799 at the age of 58.

Myths that Relate to Foxglove

Foxglove has been associated with magic and mystery for centuries. Perhaps the fact that even though it is the source of a powerful, beneficial medication, it is also highly poisonous when eaten is a reason for the interest shown in it. One legend says that fairies used to give the blossoms to foxes to use as gloves.

This enabled them to move quietly, so they would not be caught stealing a farmer’s chickens. Connecting the foxglove flowers and foxes made sense, because foxgloves grow on the forested hillsides where foxes have their dens. Another story says that medieval witches cultivated foxglove to use as an ingredient in potions created to cast spells on people. These plants were sometimes grown in medieval gardens and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Those were appropriately called “virgin’s glove.” Even today, some who practice paganism and similar religions use foxglove in some rituals.

Digitalis, Called Digoxin, Is Extracted from Foxglove

Digitalis, more often called digoxin, is a purified cardiac glycoside used to treat a variety of heart conditions, including: atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter and sometimes even heart failure. It can be effective when other medications are not. Lanoxin, Digitek and Lanoxicaps are names under which digoxin is commonly marketed.

It is usually administered by mouth but can be injected in critical situations. When conditions exist for digoxin to be used in the treatment process, myocardial efficiency improves, because hemodynamics and the ventricular function curve both improve. Digoxin is available only with a doctor’s prescription. It is primarily eliminated in the kidneys, so dosage must be reduced for those with a kidney problem.

Growing Digitalis Purpurea Commercially and Producing Digoxin

The process used today to produce digoxin is very similar to that used by Dr. Withering in the 18th century. Approximately 1000 kg of dried foxglove leaves are required to make 1 kg of pure digoxin. The process of extracting relatively small amounts of digoxin is not complicated, but it is expensive.

Commercial farming of foxglove to obtain digitalis in the USA began during World War II, when it was not possible to secure a sufficient amount from Europe. The plant grows best in the northern part of the United States and in Canada. At first, there was sufficient wild foxglove to meet the demand, but greater amounts than what could be harvested from plants growing wild were soon required.

Early efforts to grow foxglove commercially were unsuccessful. In the area where foxglove grows best, the roots of the plants had to be removed from the soil in the fall and stored through the winter. That was an expensive process. Also, the seeds of the foxglove plant are very small and sometimes are not viable.

The best method for growing foxglove plants involves the plants spending the first few weeks in a greenhouse. That is not economically feasible, because labor costs are so high in the United States. The result of all this is that, even now, most digitalis purpurea is imported.

Side Effects with the Use of Digoxin

In adults, every medicine can cause side effects, but no common side effects have been discovered due to usage of this drug. However, a person should seek medical help right away if he experiences a severe allergic reaction including: difficulty breathing, tightness in the chest, hives, fever, irregular heart beat or swelling in or around the mouth.

Digoxin and Children

Digoxin is also an effective medication for use in infants and children with slight to moderate congestive heart failure or irregular heartbeat due to atrial fibrillation. As with adults, dosage must be determined by careful clinical assessment of the individual and monitored carefully.

The daily dose for children should usually be divided, not given all at once in one dose. Once past the immediate newborn stage, children under 10 years of age usually need doses that are proportionally larger than those given to adults, but adjusted according to their body weight or surface area.

Children over 10 years of age need to be given adult dosages, but, again, the doses must be in proportion to the child’s body weight.

Pets Can Also Develop Congestive Heart Failure

Not only humans, but also their pets, can develop the symptoms of congestive heart failure. For the person who dearly loves his dog or cat and considers it part of the family, this is a vexing problem. When this kind of illness affects a dog or cat, it is for basically the same reasons that humans develop this disease.

The key to helping your pet is to take him to a veterinarian. The vet will use all the same techniques to diagnose and treat your furry little friend that are used with humans. If you want to learn more about congestive heart failure in animals, you can learn a lot by reading about heart disease in humans.

It may be encouraging to pet owners to know that the drugs used to treat pets are also approved by the FDA. It will be helpful financially if the pet owner has purchased pet health insurance before such a dire event occurs in his pet’s life.

What Should Treatment for Congestive Heart Failure Include Besides Medication?

The one who suffers from congestive heart failure should receive prescriptions for the proper medication, but there are other considerations to properly treat this condition. The first, and perhaps most important, is lifestyle modification. There are seemingly small changes that the patient must make. Sodium causes more fluids to accumulate in body tissue. Limiting the amount of both sodium and fluids consumed is very important. The slogan about drinking eight classes of water per day is certainly not intended for those suffering from congestive heart failure.

Aerobic exercise is now considered beneficial in helping a patient to function physically and have a higher quality of life. Sometime surgery is required to restore an adequate flow of blood through the heart. A doctor will often have other suggested changes for his patients’ lifestyle.

What Causes Congestive Heart Failure?

Congestive heart failure is an ailment in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient oxygen-rich blood to allow the body to function in a normal way. The condition can be caused by 1) diseases that increase a body’s demand for oxygen, 2) diseases that adversely affect the heart muscles, or 3) diseases that stiffen heart muscles. Any disease that inhibits the heart’s pumping by limiting the pumping action of the ventricles is a basic cause for congestive heart failure. Diseases such as hemochromatosis or amyloidosis can do that.

Users of Digoxin Can Experience Digoxin Toxicity

Physicians have long been aware of a potential problem that can arise when digoxin is prescribed. It is a complex reaction called “digoxin toxicity.” This syndrome was originally described by Dr. Withering in 1785. Approximately 0.4% of those admitted to hospitals, 1.1% of those not hospitalized, and 10 – 18% of nursing home residents who receive digoxin develop this toxicity.

In 2006, 2610 cases of toxic digitalis exposure were reported by the American Association of Poison Control Centers. The number of cases reported is declining because of increased awareness of dangerous drug interactions and for other reasons, including a decreased use of digoxin. Internationally, 2.17% of those on digoxin, who are hospitalized, develop digoxin toxicity.

The Cost of Digoxin

The national average cost of digoxin for a 250 mcg (0.25 mg) Tab is $7.00. Many people buy from online and Canadian pharmacies, as well as in local drugstores.

Tips for Helping Digoxin Work as Effectively as Possible

Here are some things the person who takes digoxin can do to help this medication work as effectively as possible:

• Some foods may prevent the absorption of digoxin. It is helpful to take this medicine either one hour before eating or two hours afterward.
• Do not take any new medicine, either prescription or over-the-counter, without checking with your doctor first. Many medicines should be avoided because of possible drug interaction.
• There is no standard amount of digoxin that should be prescribed. Your doctor will need to determine what amount is best based on body weight, other prescribed medicines and how well you respond to this drug.
• A patient should take digoxin at the same time each day and drink a full glass of water with it.
• It is important for the patient to keep all scheduled appointments, both with his doctor and for lab work.
• In the event of an accidental overdose of digoxin, emergency treatment must be sought immediately.
• If you miss a regular dose, do not take an extra dose to make up for it if it is less than 12 hours until time for your next dose.

The Danger of Drug Interactions

Other prescription drugs, such as verapamil, guanidine, itraconazole, spironolactone and indomethasin can increase digoxin levels. This brings the danger of toxicity. There are other drugs that can cause a serious slowing of heart rate when taken with digoxin.

Digoxin Recalls

On March 31, 2009, there was a major recall of Caraco brand digoxin. This Class 1 Recall was made, because tablets were made and sold that differed in size and in the amount of digoxin they contained.

About a month later, in late April of 2009, all digoxin pills with the Digitek brand name were found to contain twice as much digoxin as they should. There were lawsuits filed for personal injury and wrongful death against Mylan Pharmaceuticals as a result.

On May 11, 2009, there was still another recall of digoxin by a company that repackages Caraco tablets. There have been numerous other recalls of this product through the years. The person who takes this medication should try to stay abreast, as much as possible, with whatever recalls are taking place.

The Value of Digitalis

A quotation concerning this medication, found on the web page here, tells the extent of the value of digitalis:

“Digitalis” is without question the most valuable cardiac drug ever discovered and one of the most valuable drugs in the entire pharmacopoeia. The introduction of digitalis was one of the landmarks in the history of cardiac disease.”(1)

This quotation is written here exactly as it is found on the website. Even though the (1) implies a footnote to give the credit for the quotation, there is no such footnote or other reference given.

Respiratory Diseases are ailments and conditions that impair our respiratory system. The respiratory system is responsible for proper delivery of oxygen throughout the body, removal of carbon dioxide and toxic waste, ample regulation of the body temperature and the stabilization of the body’s pH level. Respiratory diseases are those that affect the lung, bronchial tubes, pleural cavity, trachea, upper respiratory tract and all muscles and nerves involved in the breathing process.

There are many reasons why respiratory diseases occur. They could result from an infection, accident or from inhaling some toxic products. It could also be genetic or a byproduct of unhealthy habits such as smoking. Genetics also play a part in contributing to the occurrence of respiratory diseases.

Types of Respiratory Diseases

There are several types of respiratory diseases. Let us briefly define them and look at some examples of each type.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Lung diseases that result from a severe obstruction of airflow Mto the lung are termed as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD. These diseases would damage and narrow the airway and block airflow in the lungs.E.g.: Emphysema

Obstructive Lung Diseases

This is a form of lung disease that occurs when the airflow in the bronchial tubes get narrowed, restricting airflow to the lungs.

E.g.: Asthma, Silicosis

Restrictive Lung Diseases

Lung diseases of this form occur where there is a reduction in lung volume either because they cannot stretch enough to alter its volume according to the pressure applied, or due to diseases affecting the pleura or chest wall.

E.g.: asbestosis, Sarcoidosis and pulmonary fibrosis

Respiratory Tract Infections

Upper respiratory tract infection

Essentially, these are infections that occur to the upper portion of the respiratory system. Some examples are common cold, sinusitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, pharyngitis and laryngitis.

Lower respiratory tract infection

The most common example of an infection affecting the lower portion of the respiratory tract is pneumonia.

Respiratory Tumors

Respiratory tumors are either malignant or benign. While the benign ones such as pulmonary hamartoma rarely cause respiratory diseases, lung cancer caused by malignant tumors pose a significant health problem. Lung cancers accounts for 15% of all cancer reports and 29% of all deaths due to cancer.

Pleural Cavity Diseases

Pleural cavity diseases occur when fluid gathers in the pleural cavity during pleural effusion or when a hole in the pleura, called pneumothorax causes the affected lung to collapse.

E.g.: Emphysema and Mesothelioma

Pulmonary Vascular Diseases

Diseases are regarded as pulmonary vascular diseases when they impact the pulmonary circulatory system of our body. They could occur from a pulmonary embolism, pulmonary arterial hypertension, pulmonary edema and damage to the capillaries in the lung that results in blood leaking into the alveoli.

Symptoms

Respiratory diseases can be detected with some of these many symptoms. One should definitely seek medical consultation and help if they find themselves suffering from one or more of these symptoms.

1. Shortness of Breath with or without exertion
2. Breathing Difficulties or Dyspnea
3. Rapid Breathing
4. Dizziness and Fainting
5. Chest Pains
6. Accelerated Heart Rate of more than 100 beats per minute. This is also known as Tachycardia.
7. Fatigue
8. Loss of Appetite
9. Weight Loss
10. General uneasy feeling
11. Bluish discoloration of the lips, tongue and/or fingers, also known as cyanosis.

Risk Factors

There are many factors that could contribute to the increase in occurrence of respiratory diseases. Constant exposure to these factors could increase the chances of respiratory diseases occurring.

1. Tobacco smoke
2. Indoor air pollutants such as those that could come from open stoves, mold, dust mites, and pollen.
3. Outdoor air pollutants that can arise from exhaust fumes from cars and factories, smoke, dust and smog.
4. Allergens that can comes from pets, pollen, dust mites, mold, smoke, formaldehyde and volatile organic Compounds (VOC).
5. Occupational hazards such as exposure to toxic fumes, chemicals and harmful substances
6. Unhealthy Lifestyle such as smoking.

Tests and Diagnosis

To determine if one is suffering from any type of respiratory disease and to determine which type, several tests could be ordered by the physician. The type of test that would be administered on a patient depends on their medical history, family history, symptoms and the diagnostic procedure physicians are expected to follow.

Some of the tests are

1. 1. Chest X-Ray

Chest X-ray is a radiograph projection of the chest that helps physicians analyze and diagnose respiratory diseases. It uses ionizing radiation to create images of the chest. X-rays are used to determine conditions that involve the chest wall, thorax bones, lungs and heart. The occurrence of pneumonia is commonly determined through an X-ray.

2. Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs)

The most common PFT that is used to measure lung function is spirometry or the measurement of breaths. This is a tool that is used to create pneumotachographs that can be used to determine respiratory conditions like asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

3. Computed Tomography Scan

Also known as a CT scan, this is a medical imaging procedure that uses tomography to create a three-dimensional image of the body part. High resolution computed tomography scan is used to diagnose respiratory diseases like emphysema and fibrosis. A general purpose image reconstruction technique is sufficient to check for pneumonia and cancer.

4. Examination of microorganism cultures derived from secretions like sputum

A microbiological culture is created when microbial organisms are allowed to multiply in a controlled environment and then tested to determine the cause of an infectious disease. In some cases, a chemical test is conducted on the culture to determine and eliminate certain causes of infection or diagnosis and could be vital information to determine the form of treatment that needs to be administered to the patient.

5. Bronchoscopy

This technique allows the insides of the airway to be viewed. Bronchoscopy also helps to provide therapeutic relief. The bronchoscope is inserted into the airway through the nose, mouth or a tracheostomy. It helps physicians analyze the airways for abnormalities like blood, tumors and inflammations.

6. Biopsy of the lung or pleura

This medical test involves the examination of cells or tissues that are removed from the patient. These are examined through a microscope by a pathologist and could be chemically analyzed.

7. Ventilation/Perfusion Lung scan (V/Q lung scan)

This form of medical imaging that uses scintigraphy to assess the blood and air circulation within the lungs. The ventilation part of the scan allows on to determine how air reaches all parts of the lung and the perfusion part assesses how blood circulates within the lungs.

8. Ultrasound

Ultrasounds are especially useful to determine the effect of pleural effusion. Pleural effusion occurs when excess fluid gathers in the pleural cavity of the ling. This could limit the expansion of the lungs and affect their breathing ability. The four types of fluid that could accumulate and cause pleural effusion are serous fluid, blood, chyle and pus.

These tests would help determine the exact type of respiratory disease that has occurred and would allowed doctors to determine the type of treatment that needs to be administered.

Treatment Options

Many factors affect the type of treatment that would be administered for respiratory diseases. These factors are the type of respiratory disease, its intensity and the medical history of the patient in concern. Here are some possible treatment options that would be suggested to help manage one’s respiratory disease.

1. Medication

Patients could be prescribed with corticosteroids, bronchodilators, antibiotics, anticoagulants, cancer chemotherapy and immune suppressants to help them with their respiratory diseases.

Side effects of these medications vary from one medicine to another. All patients must ensure that doctors know their full medical and family history to determine which form of medication is the safest and would be most suitable for them. Patients would also be warned of any specific side effect that could occur from the consumption of the medication and they should understand them clearly and comply as needed. Cost of these medications would vary based on the location, availability of medical facilities and how the insurance of the patient covers the medicinal cost.

2. Physiotherapy

Physiotherapy is most used when one has had a pulmonary surgery or has been diagnosed with cystic fibrosis, COPD or pulmonary fibrosis. Physiotherapy helps clear lung secretions and certainly help those who have suffered from respiratory diseases.


3. Oxygen Therapy

This is helpful when one is unable to inhale in sufficient oxygen due to the respiratory disease that their body is suffering from.

This form of treatment is primarily administered when patients suffer from emphysema, pneumonia and any respiratory disorder that impacts the oxygen intake of the body.

This form of treatment is flexible and can be administered in the hospital, at home and could be made portable as well.

4. Mechanical Ventilation

This process involves the mechanical replacement of the natural breathing process with ventilators. This method involved a ventilator and a trained individual who compresses the bag as required. This could be used as a short term measure during an operation or for chronic illnesses as well. Possible side effects are complications such as pneumothorax, injury of the airways and alveola, and ventilator associated pneumonia.

5. Radiotherapy

This process utilizes high energy rays to kill some or all cancer cells. In early stages of cancer, it could completely remove the cancer. In other cases, it can be supplemented with chemotherapy or surgery. In more advanced lung cancer, radiotherapy treatments could keep the illness under control by shrinking the cancer cells, providing some symptomatic relief for the patient.

6. Surgery

Surgical procedures like lobectomy and pneumonectomy could be performed to remove the cancer. Pleurodesis is a procedure that artificially eliminates the pleural space. Lung Volume Reduction Surgery where the damaged portions of the lung could help with COPD and emphysema patients. A patient’s damaged lung could be partially or completely replaced through lung transplantation. Surgery also allows for an artificial lung to be implanted into the body.

Home Remedies to Treat Respiratory Diseases

While there are many treatment options, there are some natural home remedies that one could take to control their respiratory diseases. These natural remedies could be consumed to provide relief from the symptoms of the respiratory diseases, cure the diseases to some extent and keep them in control. Needless to say, these natural remedies do not replace the doctor’s advice and prescription. When one intends to undergo a strict natural regimen, they should consult their doctor and do it as a supplement to the medications and treatments that is being administered to them.

Ginger

Ginger is a perennial herb that belongs to the rhizome family. The medicinal values possessed by gingers have been recognized for a long time by ancient Indians, Chinese and Greek physicians. Ginger is also used as a spice in many cultural dishes. The vitamins and minerals found in ginger are phosphorus, calcium, iron, carotene, thiamine, vitamin C, niacin and riboflavin. Ginger provides a great remedy for coughs and colds. When consumed with honey, ginger could provide relief from dry cough. Ginger tea is also a great remedy for colds and fever.

Fever resulting from influenza could be reduced from a mixture consisting of ginger juice, fenugreek and honey. It also works as an expectorant in asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough and tuberculosis.

Chicory

Chicory is a perennial herb that has long tap roots, round stems and several light or dark green leaves and pale blue flowers. This herb is native to the Mediterranean region and was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Its ability to create better skin was discovered a long time ago. Chicory is helpful for asthma and hay fever recovery. Juices of chicory, carrot and celery after eliminating starches and sugars help with these respiratory conditions. Powder derived from the dried chicory roots mixed in honey is a great remedy and expectorant for chronic bronchitis.

Celery

This salad plant consists of green leaves, stem and bulbous roots. The celery roots and seeds are popular in Unani and Ayurvedic treatment and medicines. The Chinese and English have used celery as a medicine since the fifth century B.C. Celery contains a well balanced proportion of nutrients, vitamins and minerals. Its antispasmodic properties help in treatment of respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, tuberculosis and pleurisy.

Tumeric

Tumeric is a perennial herb that has short stems and raised branches. This rhizome has been used by those who practice Unani and Ayurvedic medicine since ancient times. The antiseptic properties of turmeric make it a good remedy to treat chronic cough and infected throats.

When fresh turmeric powder is mixed in warm milk, they make a good remedy concoction that would help increase the discharge from the nose and provide relief from cough and cold. It is also used as a great in house remedy for bronchial asthma.

Prevention Tips

One could prevent the occurrence of respiratory diseases by adhering to at least some of the prevention tips that are mentioned here. While these prevention tips may not entirely eliminate the chances of suffering from a respiratory disease, they would at least reduce the chances of respiratory diseases from occurring. It could also help with the healing process and ensure that the infectious respiratory diseases do not spread across the population. These measures are also good for general health of all within the family and society.

1. Do not smoke. If you are, work on quitting soon. Smoking would damage your lungs and the lungs of those surrounding you, especially close family and friends. Smoking is the primary cause for many respiratory diseases and you and your loved ones are succumbed to.
2. Educate the young children about the hazards of smoking. It would be better to educate them at an early age to ensure that they can stay protected from this unhealthy habit and protect their lung health.
3. Avoid inhaling second-hand smoke. Being a passive smoker by inhaling smoke also affects your lungs and increases your chances of being affected by a respiratory disease.
4. Be more proactive and protect your family from passive smoking. You could divert from smokers who are in your way. You could also instruct visitors to your home that smoking would not be tolerated.
5. Always be clean and thoroughly wash your hands. Fight germs by maintaining your hygiene. The spread of infection reduces when everyone does their part to remain clean and germ free.
6. Cover your coughs and sneezes to prevent the spread of flu, cold and other lung diseases.
7. Contribute to limiting outdoor air pollution. Do your part to ensure that everyone breathes in cleaner air.
8. Find out how you could reduce the amount of indoor air pollutants within your house.
9. Ensure that you exercise regularly to build stronger lungs and immune system.
10. Avoid occupational hazards such as inhaling toxic fumes from chemicals, paints and other solvents. If needed wear a protective mask and ensure that good air quality is maintained at your work place at all times.
11. Ensure that you have taken the necessary vaccinations to protect yourself from respiratory diseases that are prevalent in your area.

Conclusion

Respiratory diseases come in many forms and severities. Learning more about them, how they occur, how they can be treated and prevented would certainly help us manage our lung health better. This is vital information whether you or a loved one is currently managing a respiratory disease.

Cystitis is the medical term for irritation of the bladder. It is most often the result of a bacterial infection, in which case it is also called a urinary tract infection or bladder infection. It can affect either sex at any age but is predominantly seen in adult women. At least 50% of women will have cystitis at some point in their lives while a man’s chances of getting cystitis increase with age as the prostate becomes enlarged and blocks the flow of urine from the bladder. Having the symptoms of bacterial cystitis with no actual infection is known as interstitial cystitis. While benign, interstitial cystitis can be very difficult to treat.

Symptoms

Common symptoms include:

• A feeling of pressure or discomfort in the pelvic area.
• Burning with urination, or dysuria.
• Frequent urge to urinate without much output.
• Blood in the urine, or hematuria. This will cause your urine to look pink, red, or dark brown. This symptom is more common with chemotherapy- or radiation-induced cystitis. Hematuria can also occur after intense exercise.
• Leaking of urine, or incontinence.
• Foul-smelling urine.
• Cloudy urine.
• Low-grade fever.

In young children, new occurrences of wetting accidents can be a symptom of an infection, especially if they occur only during the day or both during the day and night. Nighttime-only accidents are not considered a symptom.

Causes

Infectious cystitis is thought to be more common in women due to their shorter urethras and the closer proximity of the anus to the urethra in the female genitalia. These two things make it more likely that bacteria is introduced into the urethra and make it easier for that bacteria to make its way into the bladder.

Most bladder infections, especially in sexually active women, are caused by the introduction of various strains of E. Coli bacteria into the urethra where the bacteria rapidly spread and reproduce into the bladder. In more recent years,

Chlamydia and mycoplasma bacteria, transmitted through sexual contact, have become responsible for increasing numbers of bladder infections.

Less commonly, cystitis may occur as a reaction to certain drugs, radiation therapy or potential irritants, such as feminine hygiene spray or spermicidal jellies.

Risk Factors

• Use of a diaphram increases a woman’s risk of cystitis. It is thought that diaphrams press on the bladder and keep it from emptying completely, giving bacteria a chance to reproduce in the stagnant urine left behind.
• Pregnant women become more prone to cystitis as the fetus grows and puts pressure on the bladder.
• Use of condoms with spermicide increases the chances of contracting cystitis.
• Not circumcising male infants may lead to cystitis in the first year of life due to a build-up of bacteria under the foreskin.
• Use of catheters, both in the hospital and at home, can increase the risk of cystitis due to the possibility of introducing bacteria into the bladder via the catheter. Long-term use of a catheter may damage the bladder tissue, which also can make you more susceptible to infection and inflammation.

Prevention Tips

Following the recommendations set forth in the Home Treatment section can also help to prevent bladder infections. Women should also be sure to wipe front to back after using the bathroom to avoid introducing bacteria from the anus into the urethra.

If you are prone to cystitis after intercourse, drink extra water beforehand and be sure to urinate immediately afterwards to flush out any bacteria from the urethra. It is also a good idea to avoid using a diaphragm or spermicide for birth control. Harsh soaps, bubble bath, perfumed sprays, and feminine products should be avoided to prevent irritation of the genital area that can lead to cystitis.

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

In men, cystitis is often a cause for concern as it is generally a symptom of an underlying condition. It may indicate an obstruction that is interfering with the proper functioning of the urinary tract.

Tests for cystitis include urine analysis and urine culture. Urine analysis is performed to determine if white blood cells, red blood cells, or bacteria are present in the urine. A urine culture determines what type of bacteria is present. Knowing the type of bacteria helps your doctor tailor your pharmaceutical treatment to achieve the best results.

Treatment Options (Herbal and Home Remedies, Pharmaceutical, Surgeries) side effects, risks, and efficacy of each options, as well as costs. if different cultures use different strategies then we should list some of those as well.

Painful and annoying, bladder infections can cause serious problems if the infection is left to spread to the kidneys, which can cause permanent damage. Luckily, treatment is simple and effective.

Home Remedies

Home treatment of a bladder infection in its very early stages can keep the infection from getting worse, and in some cases may cure the infection altogether. This is the least invasive and most cost-effective course of treatment.

Steps to take are:

• Drink enough fluids to keep your urine light yellow to clear. This will help to flush the bacteria out of the bladder and will decrease irritation in the urinary tract.
• Drink cranberry or blueberry juice. You should not drink cranberry juice if you are taking the medication warfarin (Coumadin), however, as there is a known interaction between that drug and cranberries which can lead to bleeding.
• Urinate as soon as you feel the urge. Do not “hold it” until a more convenient time.
• Do not drink alcohol, caffeine, or carbonated drinks as these can irritate the bladder and are dehydrating.
• A heating pad placed over the abdomen can help to relieve discomfort and pressure in that area.

Herbal Remedies

Many of the well-known anti-microbial remedies, such as Echinacea, do not perform well in cases of cystitis. It is therefore important to concentrate on remedies that are specifically active in the urinary tract. An infusion of fresh yarrow has had good effect in some cases. Infusion of dried yarrow and tincture of yarrow did not produce the same results, however, so it is important to find reliable sources of the fresh plant if this remedy is to be applied.

Another infusion that may give relief is as follows:

• Althaea officinalis rad. – 2 parts
• Zea Mays – 2 parts
• Agropyron repens – 2 parts
• Equisetum arvensis – 2 parts
• Arctostaphylos uva-ursi – 2 parts
• Barosma betulina – 1 part

Infuse one teaspoon of this mixture in 8 ounces of boiling water for 10 to 15 minutes and drink hot 4 to 5 times a day. This infusion combines diuretic, demulcent, and antimicrobial actions.

Dried herbs can often be found in the bulk section of health foods stores for a reasonable price. Herbs can be just as dangerous as chemical medications and some interact badly with medications, so be sure to tell your doctor if you are taking any herbal remedies or supplements.

Pharmaceutical Remedies

If your symptoms do not go away within 48 hours after beginning home or herbal treatment or if they worsen or you develop a fever with chills, belly and/or back pain, vomiting, or the inability to urinate, contact your doctor for medical treatment. The doctor will perform a urine analysis, which will show if white blood cells, red blood cells, or bacteria are present. A urine culture may also be performed to determine the type of bacteria present. If it is determined you have a bacterial infection, antibiotics will be prescribed.

Commonly prescribed antibiotics for bacterial cystitis are:

• Nitrofurantoin: do not take this medication with antacids containing magnesium- trisilicate as it binds with it and affect absorption. Common side effects are nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, headache, dizziness, or drowsiness. This medication may also cause your urine to turn brown or dark yellow. This medication may sometimes cause a rare, yet fatal, lung infection.
• Notify your doctor immediately if you experience chest pain, shortness of breath, or an unusual and persistent cough.
• The elderly may be more susceptible to the side effects of this medication. This medication should not be taken while breastfeeding and only when necessary while pregnant and never within 2 weeks of expected due date.
• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: Side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, or headache. Taking this medication on a full stomach may control nausea. Older people and people with AIDS may be more sensitive to the side effects of this medication. This medication should only be used when necessary during pregnancy and should not be used close to the expected due date.
• Amoxicillin: Common side effects are nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea. Older people may be more sensitive to the side effects of this medication. It should only be taken when necessary while pregnant or breastfeeding.
• Ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin: Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, or trouble sleeping. If you have had an allergic reaction to other quinolone based antibiotics, you should not take these medications. This medication should only be used when necessary while pregnant and not while nursing.

Symptoms generally improve with a day or two of beginning a course of antibiotics, though you will need to continue to take them for 3 to 10 days depending on your prescription. It is important to take your medication as instructed and to finish the entire course of antibiotics even if you feel better before it is finished.

Antibiotics

Those who suffer from chronic cystitis may be given a low-dose antibiotic to take on a regular basis. Some women find taking a single dose of antibiotic immediately after intercourse helps them avoid cystitis if they are prone to bladder infections after sex. If antibiotics do not give relief to chronic sufferers, some find long-term relief through cauterization of the lining of the bladder using cystoscopy.

During this procedure, a cystoscope is inserted into the urethra and threaded up into the bladder. Tools can be passed through the cystoscope into the bladder to view the lining and take samples. It is also in this way that a cauterization tool can be passed into the bladder to cauterize any actively bleeding or inflamed areas seen through the cystoscope.

Advanced Therapy

Chemotherapy related cystitis is often treated with mesna, which reduces the chance of bleeding in the bladder by protecting is lining from irritation. Headache, flushing, dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, constipation, sensitive skin, and flu-like symptoms are common side effects of this medication. It is important to drink at least 1 liter of liquid a day during chemotherapy to help flush irritants from the bladder. This type of cystitis generally disappears when chemotherapy and radiation are discontinued.

Pyridium can also be used to control the pain and burning associated with cystitis.

Treatment for noninfectious cystitis depends on its causes. If a chemical sensitivity is causing your symptoms a simple avoidance of the offending substances can bring relief and help prevent a recurrence. Be sure to be gentle when washing the genital area and to avoid douches and other feminine hygiene products that can cause irritation that can lead to cystitis.

Definition of Cough

A cough (the latin word is “tussis,” which lends its name to the suffix of some cough medicines) is a natural muscle reflex of the body attempting to remove some irritation, collection or blockage from the throat or lungs in order to allow for normal breathing and swallowing.

The normal breathing pattern occurs when air is passed through the nose and mouth down through the vocal cords (larynx) via the windpipe (trachea) and into our lungs (bronchi). Once in the lungs, the air flows into smaller air passages called “bronchioles.” At the cellular level, oxygen is added through the bloodstream, where the waste product of carbon dioxide is removed.

When an irritant bothers any section of the respiratory (breathing) system, the nerves send a message to the brain, which triggers the “cough” impulse to clear the blockage. The abdomen and diaphragm push air up past the “epiglottis,” which is a flap of elastic cartilage tissue attached to the root of the tongue that closes the throat. The force of this sudden force attempts to dislodge the foreign irritant.

There are many different cough types depending on the immediate irritant or underlying malady. Some coughs are voluntary, others are involuntary. Usually, a cough is associated with a cold or influenza (flu); but, it could also be a sign of a more serious ailment.

Symptoms

A cough is a natural process; if it is voluntary and removes any foreign irritant, then it is not a cause for concern. When there is an abnormal state of the respiratory system – nose, throat or lungs – a cough will attempt to clear the blockage. General dryness, irritation or swelling of the breathing system can trigger a cough.

Coughs can be grouped by duration, intensity and type of phlegm (also called sputum) expelled; a medical professional can determine the cause of the cough based on these characteristics. A mild cough that lasts only a couple of days is categorized as “acute.” A repetitive cough, lasting more than a month, is called “chronic,” and can be a sign of a more serious condition, like Bronchitis.

Symptoms of a cough can include the following:

• Runny nose
• Sore throat
• Headache
• Muscle aches.

A doctor should be called when the following serious conditions occur with a cough:

• Blue colour in lips, tongue or face
• Coughing up blood
• Exhaustion
• Greenish-yellow or bloody sputum (phlegm)
• Heavy sweating
• High fever above 101 degrees Fahrenheit
• Hives
• Lasting for weeks
• Losing weight
• Patient is younger than three years old
• Stiff neck
• Swelling of throat, neck or face
• Violent Stridor or Whooping Cough.

Causes

Specific Irritants

Coughing is the body’s mechanism to clear the throat passage of any irritant, foreign particle or blockage. Some irritants are airborne contaminants – like dust, smoke, exhaust and smog. The most common foreign particles are food, which can get stuck in the throat, impeding air flow. The common cold or flu can lead to a build-up of mucus that blocks the throat.

Microorganisms including microbes, viruses and bacteria can infect the respiratory system. Allergic reactions to food, perfumes, chemicals or animals can lead to the swelling of throat membranes. More serious conditions can lead to psychological and physical problems with breathing.

General Categories

The following are all possible causes of a cough:

• Acute Sinusitis – Inflamed or swollen nasal passages
• Air pollution – Tobacco smoke, smog or exhaust
• Allergy – Hypersensitive reaction to some chemical, i.e. hay fever, food or pets
• Asthma (Hyperactive Airways Disease) – Bronchial tubes narrowed due to reaction
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) – (Bronchitis, Bronchiectasis or Bronchiolitis) – congestion, infection or inflammation of these major air tubes can be very serious
• Common cold – There is no known cure for this ailment
• Foreign body – Typically, food gets stuck in trachea (windpipe), causing swallowing difficulties
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) – Stomach acid flows back into esophagus causing heartburn
• Laryngitis – Hoarseness of larynx due to overuse
• Lung (Pulmonary) problems – These ailments include cancer, edema (fluid) or embolism (blood clot)
• Medication reaction – Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors – Enalapril (Vasotec), Captopril (Capoten), and Lisinopril (Zestril) – are used to treat hypertension (heart disease)
• Pertussis (“Whooping cough”) – Airway infection caused by the bacteria Bordetella Pertussis
• Pleurisy – Inflammation of this lung membrane
• Pneumonia – Lung infection caused by microorganisms (viruses, fungi, parasites or bacteria)
• Post-Nasal Drip – Nose, sinuses and throat produce mucus that irritates throat
• Respiratory Synctial Virus (RSV) – Lung infection and blockage of breathing passages
• Throat Disorders (Croup, Strep, Tonsillitis or Pharyngitis) – Caused by virus or bacteria
• Tuberculosis – Serious infectious disease caused by the Tubercle Bacillus.

Risk Factors

Since most coughs are the result of a cold or flu, a weak immune system is the primary risk factor. Those who are overweight, smoking or experience cold-and-wet conditions for prolonged periods of time are most at-risk for conditions like GERD, lung cancer or pneumonia. Children have weaker immune systems, so they are more likely to get mild coughs.

It is very easy to transmit germs through the air or via physical contact. When someone coughs, the speed of the discharged air can reach speeds of up to 60 miles-per-hour. Sick people should cover their coughs with a handkerchief, tissue or sleeve.

Prevention Tips

“An Ounce of Prevention is Worth a Pound of Cure!”

The best way to prevent a cough is by strengthening your immune system, keeping your environment free of airborne contaminants and eating healthy meal dosages. There are germs everywhere, especially on keyboards, phones and handles that are used by different people. Wash your hands before and after meal preparation, when handling garbage, or cleaning. Using soap and sanitary alcohol cleaners can kill dangerous microorganisms before they infect you.

Other conditions that can prevent coughs include not eating within an hour before going to sleep, staying away from spicy foods, not smoking and reducing weight. Suggestions for avoiding GERD include wearing loose-fitting clothing and elevating your head while sleeping. Some ailments, like the “whooping cough” (pertussis), can be prevented with vaccines: Diptheria, Tetanus and Acellular Pertussis (DTaP).

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

Testing

Mild, acute, voluntary coughs might go away by themselves. Violent, chronic, involuntary coughs might require testing and professional medical treatment that would reveal deeper underlying problems. The following types of tests could be administered for coughs: blood and urine, imaging, scoping, or breathing.

Blood and urine tests:

These will search for common chemicals produced when different ailments are present. A common chemical produced during Asthma attacks is Immunoglobin E; thus, specialists will test to see if this chemical is present in the patient’s body.

Imaging tests:

• The Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT/CT) Scan uses a computer and x-rays to create a cross-directional map of the body for better analysis of the respiratory system.
• Medical professionals can use x-rays on the heart, lungs, or chest to search for serious maladies, like Lung Cancer.

Scoping tests:

These are performed with a small, thin, flexible, fiber-optic camera tube used to detect foreign bodies, blockages and tumours:

• Nasal endoscopy for sinuses
• Upper endoscopy for throat
• Bronchoscopy for windpipe and lungs.

Breathing tests:

These breathing tests measure lung capacity, like the “Bronchoprovocation” challenge, where the patient inhales a medication, like “Methacholine” and the pulmunologist measures the lung response.

A spirometer (peak flow meter) measures the strength of lung capacity as patients blows air into a container. A lung specialist, called a pulmunologist, might administer this test to determine possible lung problems.

Diagnosis Factors

Doctors will ask a series of questions in order to gather information that might reveal the source of a cough, including the following:

• How long has the cough lasted?
• Are there certain times that the cough is more intense?
• What type of mucus is being coughed up?
• What colour is the coughed-up mucus?
• Are you allergic to anything?
• Do you have any history of diseases in your family?
• Do you drink or smoke?
• Are you taking any medications?

A doctor would physically examine the nose, throat and lungs to see if there was any swelling. The intensity, duration and sound of the cough all help the health professionals diagnose the cough’s origins.

Since a cough can occur for so many different reasons, there are a variety of treatments that can be administered. Most physicians will advise patients to drink plenty of liquids and use some sort of cough syrup to lubricate the throat area. Therapy will be carefully conducted as the medical professional watches for how the body responds.

Cough Types

The following cough types are associated with specific ailments:

• Atopic cough could derive through genetic allergic hypersensitivity
• Psychogenic cough (Tourette’s Syndrome) is a nervous “habit” or “tic” caused by mental anxiety
• Dry cough could be Pleurisy
• Barky cough associated with Croup caused by swelling of larynx (voice box)
• Smoker’s cough due to dryness or burning of trachea
• Whooping cough (Pertussis) can be continuous without air being breathed in between coughs
• Wheezing (or Whistling) cough is usually due to swollen airways caused by asthma
• Nighttime cough is due to fluid collecting in lungs while laying down
• Mucus-filled cough could be a sign of COPD

Treatment Options

Herbal and Home Remedies

The purpose of most treatments is to control mucus expectoration, or lubricate the throat. Because coughs are such a common ailment, many families have a storage house of home cures and remedies that are affordable and easy to make. Cool or warm juice can help rejuvenate throat tissue that is becoming raw or prickly. Usually, people should stay away overly acidic orange juice that might upset the stomach. Chicken noodle soup and fibre are favourite foods. Honey and lemon offer energy and a sharp burst of citrus to bust through clogs.

A small amount of brandy can help patients sleep, moistening the throat and killing bacteria. Patients must be careful to continue to drink large amounts of water, since alcohol will tend to dry the body out. Herbal remedies include menthol, camphor, eucalyptus and tea to soothe air passages. Most cough sweets (drops) include a combination of these herbs.

Pharmaceutical

Cough medications aim at reducing the mucus in the throat passages, acid in the stomach or body pains. Cough syrups usually have a combination of medicines for treating coughs.

• A cough suppressant – like Codeine, Dextromethorphan or Quaifenesin – will directly reduce any throat muscle irritation that causes the cough.
• Antihistimines, like Diphenhydramine (Benadryl), stop runny noses, sneezing and the Upper Airway Cough Syndrome (UACS) by freeing up mucus that clogs airways.
• Nasal decongestants, like Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed) clean out sinus conditions (post-nasal drip or a stuffy nose), so that people can breathe more easily.
• Pain relievers, like Aspirin, reduce the headaches and body aches that sap the strength of the cougher. Don’t give Aspirin or adult cough medicine to children.
• GERD can be treated by anti-acid, proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) – Famotidine (Pepcid), Cimetidine (Tagamet), Esomeprazole (Nexium), Lansoprazole (Prevacid), Omeprazole (Prilosec), Pantoprazole (Protonix), Rabeprazole (Aciphex), or Ranitidine (Zantac).
• Antibiotics can help treat more serious ailments, killing bacteria that can cause the conditions that lead to a cough. Antibiotics don’t help treat the common cold.
• Nasal inhalers, like Ipratropium Bromide (Atrovent), can also be used to relieve congestion.
• Bacterial Pneumonia and Bronchitis can be treated with Azithromycin (Zithromax).
• Corticosteroids can treat Eosinophil Granulocytes.
• Inhaled steroids or a bronchodilator can treat Asthma.
• Analgesics will help fight Pleurisy.

Surgeries

Surgery is the final treatment if a cough is chronic and severe. A sequence of tests should be conducted to verify the source of the cough. Extreme ailments, like a hiatic hernia, might require surgery. Major surgery can require extensive time for the body to recover.

Air Cleaning Systems

Better air cleaning technology has permitted people to purchase a number of systems that can improve their immediate living environment. There are a variety of different air purifier systems – High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA), Ionic and Ultraviolet – that usually work with air conditioning and heating furnace systems to remove dust, mold and allergens from the air. Those who suffer from severe asthma are turning to these air cleaning systems to prevent coughs.

Hot steam via a humidifier can help relieve dry throat conditions that cause coughing. A dehumidifer can clear out air that is so full of water vapour that it is difficult to breathe.

Side effects

Risks

When coughs fail to remove a foreign blockage from the space where air, liquid and food travel, the results can be very serious.

A continual cough can lead to any of the following side effects:

• Back muscle strain
• Dizziness
• Fainting
• Fractured ribs
• Headache
• Insomnia
• Leg swelling
• Lightheadedness
• Lung discomfort or pain
• Pneumonia
• Shortness of breath
• Swallowing difficulties.

When the patient is coughing up blood (hemoptysis), get immediate medical attention. There could be blood in the stomach or lungs. This could be caused by COPD, a lung abscess, mitral valve stenosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, or Wegener’s granulomatosis.

Efficacy

The efficacy of different treatments depends upon the person, strength of dosage and severity of any underlying ailment.

Costs

Home remedies are the most affordable, cough sweets are very cheap.

Surgery can be very expensive.

Remedies from other cultures

Many African cultures use hot peppers, especially in pepper soup to burn through the microorganisms and mucus that may cause a cough. The herb, “Pelargonium Sidoides,” is found in South Africa; it has natural immune system boosters and anti-inflammatory agents.

The Chinese herb, “Radix Platycodi” is used for clearing phlegm from lungs. “Biao Men Dong” is used for coughs. “Bai He Gu Jin Tang,” “Er Chen Tang,” “Ding Chuan Tang,” and “Chuan Bei Pi Pa Gao” are other natural remedies for coughs.

The liver is one of the most important organs in the human body. As the largest organ inside the body, it is about the size of an American football and weighs 2 to 3 pounds. The liver is located in the upper-right quadrant of the abdomen, under the rib cage. It is composed of two lobes, and each of those are made up of smaller lobules.

Oxygen is supplied to the liver from the hepatic artery, while supporting nutrients are delivered via the portal vein. The portal vein flows to the liver through the intestines and spleen, where it delivers both important nutrients for protein and cholesterol production and chemicals that need to be detoxified.

Functions of Your Liver

The liver has several functions and is considered one of the busiest “factories” in the body. Some of the main functions of the liver are to create components of the blood from raw nutrients, produce necessary enzymes and proteins, balance hormone levels, and metabolize foreign substances in the body, detoxifying it. In addition, the liver plays a secondary role in maintaining the immune system and is responsible for creating bile, which aids in digestion. Because the liver produces bile, it is not only an organ but, medically speaking, a gland. Once the bile is produced, it travels to the gall bladder for storage.

There is no one ailment known as “liver disease.” Liver disease is a generalized term for several different maladies that affects the normal functioning of the liver, the loss of which can cause grievous injury to the rest of the body.

Doctors have pushed to limit the use of the term, in favor of the more specific diseases, but the term continues to persist. Liver disease is also sometimes known as hepatic disease.

The liver is a very hardy organ and the only part of the body that can regenerate itself. Even so, liver disease can cause the widespread failure of the organ once the disease has caused 3/4 of it to shut down. Before this time, the liver will still function properly.

Causes of Liver Disease

Liver disease is a broad category of other, more specific, diseases. These specific conditions that cause liver disease can work alone or in conjunction. One disease, often leads to another, more severe form.

The two most common forms of liver disease are cirrhosis and hepatitis. In cirrhosis, normal liver tissue is replaced with non-functional scar tissue that never heals. If a direct cause of the liver disease can be determined, it is possible to stop it from destroying any more of the organ. Other types of liver disease can damage the organ through inflammation, obstruction of bile, accumulation of cholesterol, decreased blood flow, foreign chemicals, or abnormal cell growth. Here are some of the diseases that are grouped into this category:

• Alcohol hepatitis – Consumed alcohol directly affects the liver and is a poison to it, causing it to become inflamed. Fat deposits can accumulate in the liver due to chronic alcohol abuse, causing malfunction and failure. Alcohol abuse may also cause other, more severe forms of liver disease.
• Cirrhosis – The scarring of the liver and subsequent loss of function. It is considered a late-stage form of liver disease.
• Drug-induced liver disease – Several medications are extremely toxic to the liver and can cause permanent damage. Some of these medications can cause damage at prescribed doses, while others require an overdose or excessive use. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is one common over-the-counter drug that can cause liver damage. Cholesterol-controlling drugs, known as statin medications, are also toxic to the liver. Other drugs that can cause liver damage are niacin, nitrofurantoin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, isoniazid, methotrexate, and disulfiram. Additionally, some natural herbs and herbal remedies can cause liver disease. Herbal or natural plants causing liver disease are ma-huang, kava-kava, and many types of poisonous mushrooms.
• Hepatitis A – There are five types of hepatitis. Type A is a caused by a virus that is generally transmitted via accidental ingestion of feces. It causes serious inflammation that may resolve itself. A preventative vaccine exists for hepatitis A.
• Hepatitis B – This type of hepatitis spreads through direct contact of bodily fluids (shared needles, blood transfusions, sex). It can become chronic and lead to cirrhosis or even cancer. A vaccine also exists for hepatitis B.
• Hepatitis C – This type is also spread via direct transmission through bodily fluids. It is a chronic illness that often leads to cirrhosis or cancer. No vaccine exists for hepatitis C.
• Hepatitis D – This is caused by a virus that is transmitted concurrently with the hepatitis B virus. The D virus cannot live without the presence of the B virus.
• Hepatitis E – Hepatitis E can be transmitted through food and water that has been contaminated.
• Viral liver disease – Other than the hepatitis virus, several different viral infections can cause liver damage, including mononucleosis (Epstein-Barr), adenovirus, and cytomegalovirus.
• Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease – This disease causes fatty deposits to collect in the liver that interrupt its normal functioning.
• Hemochromatosis – This is a disorder in which the body has a problem metabolizing iron, causing it to build up. The extra iron can get caught in the liver, among other organs, leading to inflammation and failure.
• Liver cancer
• Wilson’s disease – Wilson’s disease is a genetic disorder like hemochromatosis, except it affects the body’s ability to metabolize copper.
• Gilbert’s syndrome – This is a common disease, affecting up to 7% of all people in North America. It causes abnormal metabolizing of bilirubin. Gilbert’s usually causes no major harm, no symptoms, and often requires no treatment.
• Budd Chiari syndrome – This condition causes blood clots to build in the hepatic vein, decreasing blood flow through the organ. It can both increase blood pressure and lead to more serious forms of liver disease. Budd Chiari syndrome has several causes, including pregnancy, sickle cell anemia, and inflammatory bowel disease.
• Congestive heart failure – While congestive heart failure is more detrimental to the circulatory system, it can also adversely affect the liver.
• Bile obstruction – If bile becomes obstructed from the liver to the gall bladder or from the gall bladder to the intestine, the liver can become inflamed. The most common cause of bile obstruction is gallstones. Some people also have a congenital deformation in the bile ducts that can cause obstruction.

Symptoms of Liver Disease

Liver disease has several symptoms that are in common, no matter the exact cause:

• Abdominal pain
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Jaundice – an apparent yellowing of the skin caused by elevated bilirubin.
• Weakness
• Fatigue
• Weight loss

If the liver disease is caused by or develops into cirrhosis, the following symptoms can occur in addition to the general symptoms:

• Bruising becomes easier due to a decrease in the ability of the blood to clot.
• A buildup of bile can leave salt deposits in the skin, causing itching.
• An imbalance of hormones may lead to gynecomastia (enlarged breasts) in men.
• Hormonal imbalance may also cause a decrease in libido or impotence in men.
• Rising levels of ammonia in the body may cause confusion or lethargy.
• Decreased production of proteins caused ascites, an accumulation of fluid in the abdomen.
• Decreased protein production can also lead to muscle degeneration.
• Increased pressure in the liver can lead to a slowing of blood flow. This causes blood vessels to swell, leading to varicose veins along the digestive tract.

Risk Factors for Contracting Liver Disease

Several different risk factors exist that can lead to liver disease. Some of the factors can be avoided and others are genetics.

• Liver diseases caused by direct bodily fluid contact have higher rates of incidence in people who share unsterilized needles for intravenous drug use or unprotected sex. Some people have also been known to contract hepatitis from dirty tattooing equipment.
• Alcohol abuse is one of the leading causes of liver disease.
• Exposure to toxic chemicals can cause a buildup of the chemicals in the liver as it tries to detoxify the body.
• Some forms of liver disease are genetic, such as hemochromatosis and Wilson’s disease. Those with a family history of these diseases are more likely to have them themselves.
• Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is highly toxic to the liver. Excessive use and overdosing can lead to liver disease or liver failure.
• Taking medications that cause blood vessels to narrow can lead to liver disease. Birth control pills have been linked contracting liver disease.
• While smoking is thought of more in its ability to cause lung-related problems, it is also attached to liver disease.

Liver Disease Prevention Tips

Some forms of liver disease are completely preventable, while nothing can be done for genetic liver disease. Here are some things that can be done to help prevent liver disease:

• Drink only in moderation. Alcohol abuse is the leading cause of liver disease. No evidence exists linking low or moderate alcohol use to liver disease, but abuse can greatly affect the liver.
• Minimizing direct contact with other people’s body fluids greatly reduces the chances of contracting liver disease. Any needles used to break the skin should be sterilized and not have been used by another person.
• Always use a condom when engaging in sexual intercourse.
• Avoid having tattoos done by anyone who is not a licensed professional. Unsterilized tattoo equipment can spread hepatitis.
• Vaccinations for hepatitis A and hepatitis B are available and prevent transmission of the disease.
• Fatty liver disease can be prevented by eating a healthy, balanced diet and maintaining a schedule of regular exercise.

Diagnosis of Liver Disease

Since liver disease is an internal disorder, it can only be diagnosed by a health professional. Several blood tests exist to determine the presence of liver disease.

Additionally, a doctor will use a medical history, questionnaire, and observation of symptoms. Examination of the entire body is usually done as part of the diagnosis. Here are the blood tests made specifically to detect liver disease:

• AST and ALT – These transaminase chemicals are released by the liver when it is inflamed.
• CCT and alkaline phosphate – These chemicals are released by the lining of the bile ducts and can indicate liver disease.
• Bilirubin – High levels of Bilirubin are released when the liver is diseased.
• Protein and albumen – Both protein and albumen levels are affected by liver disease.

Some other blood tests are not made specifically to detect liver disease, but can be useful in the diagnosis:

• Complete blood count – A CBC can show a low blood cell count that is indicative of late-stage liver disease.
• INR – This detects the ability of the blood to clot, which is affected by liver disease.
• Lipase – This can detect an inflamed pancreas that could be the result of liver disease.
• Electrolytes, creatine, and BUN can be assessed to determine if the kidneys are functioning properly.
• Increased ammonia levels can show liver disease.

In addition to blood tests, some physicians prefer to use imaging devices to create viewable images of the liver and other organs.

• CT scan – This is a computerized axial tomography image of the internal organs.
• MRI scan – An MRI is a magnetic resonance imaging technique.
• Ultrasound – Ultrasound uses sound waves to create an image of internal organs. This is commonly used on the bile ducts and gallbladder.

The last procedure that is used in determining liver disease is a liver biopsy. A long needle is inserted through the chest to pull out a small sample of liver tissue for examination. This can be used to help determine a specific liver disease once general liver disease has been diagnosed.

Treatment of Liver Disease

Since liver disease has many different causes and is made up by many different specific diseases, treatments can vary greatly. Hepatitis A treatment consists of keeping the body hydrated while the immune system does most of the work in clearing it up. If gallstones are the cause of the liver disease, passing them will relieve the disease and the liver will heal itself. If they cannot be passed, then surgical removal is necessary.

Patients with more severe forms of liver disease, such as late-stage cirrhosis will need medications to control the disease and maintain function. Protein absorption is big problem and part of the treatment for cirrhosis. To minimize water retention, a low-sodium diet is prescribed. If fluid does accumulate, it may have to be removed through paracentesis, which requires a needle be inserted through the abdomen and the fluid pulled into a syringe.

Surgery may be required for people with liver disease in cases where portal hypertension is present. This type of blood pressure increase can be relieved through one of two surgical operations:

1. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) – This surgery requires a stent be placed in the center of the liver to connect the hepatic vein with the portal vein.
2. Distal splenorenal shunt (DSRS) – This surgery relieves pressure by connecting the part of the vein that goes to the kidney with part that runs from the spleen.

In the final stages of liver disease, when failure is imminent, a liver transplant may be necessary. Before a transplant can be performed a thorough medical work-up must take place to determine if the transplant is possible and from whom a liver can be used. Many people require a liver transplant, but livers are only viable for a short time after death. In some situations, a living donor can be used in a procedure that removes up to one-third of their liver and puts it in the patient. There are currently more people that require new livers than new livers available. This means patients are placed on a waiting list. In some cases, when no liver is available for a length of time, the patient may die before he or she reaches the top of the list.

If a liver transplant becomes available, the procedure takes anywhere from six to twelve hours to complete. Even if the operation is successful, the patient’s immune system may still reject the transplant as a foreign body. Some medications may help the body assimilate the transplanted liver, but there are no guarantees. If everything goes well, a liver transplant patient will be allowed to go home after two or three weeks of recovery.

Home Remedies for Liver Disease

Although liver disease is a serious ailment that should first be cared for by a medical professional, several home remedies exist that can help to alleviate liver disease by relieving symptoms and cleaning impurities from the liver. The most important home remedy is to eat a balanced diet. A diet rich in lean protein, such as provided by eggs and fish is extremely important. Most fat should also be removed from the diet. In addition, fresh vegetables are important, especially carrots, spinach, papaya, and cucumber. Other vegetables important to healthy liver function are cabbage, mushrooms, sprouts, tomatoes, beets, and beans. These fresh vegetables can help to detoxify the liver, relieving symptoms. Here are some other home remedies for liver disease:

• Avoid alcohol and caffeinated beverages.
• Yoga and breathing exercises can help to get proper amounts of oxygen to the liver. Some forms of yoga also provide a massage to the liver that is beneficial in relaxing it and keeping it working smoothly.
• Drink plenty of fresh, clean water.
• Avoid salt and refined sugar.
• Drink one glass of fresh spinach/carrot juice (1:1 ratio) per day.
• Dandelion root tea has been shown to be beneficial to the liver.
• Licorice root can provide some benefits to those with liver disease.
• Milk thistle, turmeric, and guduchi are herbs that have traditionally been used to keep the liver clean and functioning properly.

Jaundice is a yellowish discoloration of the pigment in the skin that results in several other problems as well. The condition is most commonly found in newborns and infants but can affect adults as well. The term “Jaundice” comes from the French language and means “yellow”.

Alternative Names For Jaundice

The most common alternative name for jaundice is Icterus. Other terms are Yellow Skin and Yellow Eyes. There are also several different types of jaundice, each of which is given a distinct name. Neonatal Jaundice is the most common form and occurs in newborns a few days following birth. Hemolytic Jaundice is caused by the body’s red blood cells being destroyed or broken down. Hepatocellular Jaundice is the result of a dysfunctional liver, or a liver that is unable to properly produce bilirubin.

These are the most common types of jaundice but other rare forms may exist and have only been rarely documented.

Symptoms That May Accompany Jaundice

The most common symptoms of jaundice are a slight yellowing of the skin and a similar yellowing in the eyes. For most infants, parents will first notice the discoloration in their baby’s face. The yellowing will continue downward beginning in the chest and then falling towards the arms, stomach, and legs. Infants may also experience some of the following symptoms as well:

1. High-pitched or drawn out screams.
2. The infant may always seem sick, sleepy, and difficult to wake up.
3. Slow-weight gain.
4. Other signs such as irregular bowel movements and a high fever.

Adults will have similar symptoms as an infant when dealing with jaundice, but may also notice a few other signs. Jaundice will often be accompanied by the urine becoming a brown-yellowish color. Stools may become more pale or white in adults who have jaundice. Because jaundice denotes to there being a problem in the liver and digestive system, the person may also experience vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, and a loss of appetite.

Causes Of Jaundice

Jaundice is typically the result of too much bilirubin being produced so that the liver cannot remove it from the bloodstream. Hemoglobin is a chemical which is found within all red blood cells and is beneficial to the survival of the cells. When red blood cells become old or not useful, the body will destroy them and release the iron that is found within the Hemoglobin. Bilirubin is produced as the product of the iron being released from the Hemoglobin. If too many red blood cells are dying and too much bilirubin is being produced, the body may not be fully capable of dealing with so much bilirubin.

The production of too much bilirubin may not always be the culprit. Often times the liver will have a small defect that prevents the bilirubin from being removed from the blood. Other times a blockage may arise within the digestive system that blocks the flow of bile and bilirubin tot he intestines. This will cause less flow of the bile and can result in a form of jaundice that is related to a disease called cholestasis.

In the case of infants, jaundice is caused by a slightly different problem. A newborn infant will have a very high amount of red blood cells whose life cycles are relatively short. Because of this high turnover rate of red blood cells, infants may have excess bilirubin during the first few weeks of life. Other causes of jaundice in newborns can include:

1. Some type of internal bleeding or hemorrhage.
2. A blood infection.
3. Some viral and bacterial infections can cause the skin to turn yellow, similar to jaundice.
4. A dysfunctional or malfunctioning liver
5. Some form of abnormality in the infant’s red blood cells.

The term jaundice refers to the actual “yellowing” of the skin and eyes, but is not a disorder in itself. Jaundice is typically a sign that there may be a problem in the liver or digestive system.

Risk Factors That Can Be Related To Jaundice

Premature infants are at the greatest risk of having jaundice. Babies born before 37 weeks are among those with the highest risk of having jaundice. Infants born after 37 weeks may still have jaundice but are at less of a risk. The reason that prematurely born infants have a greater risk of jaundice is due to the liver being less developed.

Babies who are born with a blood-group incompatibility are also at risk. Incompatibilities issues arise if your baby has a different blood type than your own. Babies who receive intense bruising during birth may have a higher level of bilirubin in their body due to the destruction of more red blood cells. Thus, bruised babies may have a greater chance of having jaundice. Children who are breast-fed have a higher risk of jaundice, especially if they are having a difficult time nursing and are not receiving the proper amounts of nutrition.
In the case of adults, those who have had some form of Hepatitis are generally at the greatest risk. Also, people who have alcoholic liver diseases or are heavy drinkers are at a risk of jaundice. Persons infected with the HIV virus or other sexually transmitted diseases may be more susceptible to having jaundice. The recipient or donor of a recent liver transplant or other operation on the liver may also show signs of jaundice.

Prevention Tips To Help Avoid Jaundice

Because jaundice occurs in over 75% of newborns, it can be difficult to prevent. While in the womb, the baby relies on the mother’s liver to perform most of the reduction in excess bilirubin. When the baby is born his or her liver may not yet have had the practice to do this on their own. With time their own livers will be able to remove excess bilirubin.

The best way to prevent jaundice from becoming more sever is to ensure that your infant is getting the nutrients he or she needs by properly breast feeding them. Infants should be fed 8 to 12 times a day on average and be fed approximately every two hours.

Children should be examined within 5 days of birth by a trained children’s physician. The child’s doctor may be able to note signs that suggest jaundice before the parents can and thus prevent the jaundice from becoming worse. Also, make sure to check your infant’s urine and stool. Urine should be odorless and clear, if it is a yellowish color then that may be a sign of jaundice. A stool that is pale, pink, or purple may be accompanied by jaundice. Healthy stools range in color from green to yellow.

Adults can prevent jaundice by avoiding those activities which may be related to some of the above mentioned risk factors. Adults who drink excessive alcohol and contract liver disease may have jaundice. One of the best ways to prevent jaundice in adults is to avoid alcohol. Adults should also avoid any sexual activity, such as unprotected sex, that may put them at risk of a sexual disease. Do not allow yourself to be poked by an unclean needle. If you have recently had an operation that has affected your liver it is important to follow all of the surgeon’s advice in order to care for your liver and prevent jaundice.

Tests And Other Diagnosis Considerations When Dealing With Jaundice

Infants will commonly receive blood and urine tests that can determine whether or not they have jaundice. The most common test is called the “Bilirubin Test”. The Bilirubin Test is simply a test of the blood to determine if bilirubin levels are too high.

Adults who take this test should not eat or drink for 4 hours prior to appointment. Levels of bilirubin in the blood is typically between .20 mg/dL to 1.5 mg/dL, anything that is significantly higher than these amounts should require a physician’s attention

Adults who have signs of jaundice that may denote a more severe health problem may be more fully examined with the aid of ultrasound techniques, CT and MRI scans, or an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. These scans are used to examine organs, such as the liver, and determine any malfunction.

The scans can also be used to uncover any blockages near the liver that are preventing excess bilirubin from exiting the body. A liver biopsy, in which a small piece of liver tissue is extracted and examined, may also be used in order to determine if the liver is not performing its proper function.

Treatment Options

Herbal And Home Remedies Commonly Used To Treat Jaundice

Several herbs have been used for hundreds of years to help buildup a strong liver. These herbs can also help fight against jaundice, but should be used accompanied by medical care and not by themselves. Some commonly used herbs include:

1. Bitter Luffa
2. Radish Leaves
3. Tomatoes
4. Snake Gourd Leaves
5. Pigeon Pea Leaves
6. Sugarcane Juice
7. Lemon Juice
8. Barley Water
9. Jaundice Berry (also known as Berberis vultaris)

Most of these herbs can be found at a local Herbologist’s or Naturalist’s office, and some can be found at general nutrition centers and department stores.

Proper home care of jaundice is best provided by receiving adequate physical rest. Recovery is dependent upon the liver being able to handle the amount of bilirubin from destroyed blood cells. Blood cells are destroyed less when a person is sleeping or resting than when they are physically active. Patients should drink plenty of juice of all kinds throughout the day and be on a light carbohydrate diet..

Pharmaceutical Treatments Of Jaundice

Infants who have severe jaundice will often be recommended to use phototherapy. Phototherapy is the use of light waves to eliminate excess bilirubin in your baby’s blood. The skin and blood will absorb certain light waves and can use the energy of the light to change the bilirubin into more useful products that their body can either use or pass through their digestive system. Phototherapy is relatively inexpensive and special “biliblankets” can be used at home in order to avoid excess hospital bills. Phototherapy can often cause frequent or loose bowel movements, but this is normal. If these bowel movements persist for an extended period of time following the treatment of jaundice you should contact a physician.

Because jaundice in adults is usually related to some other disorder or disease, physicians will typically not prescribe antibiotics or other medications unless they are used to cure the related disorder.

Surgical Treatments For Jaundice

Gall stones can often be the cause of jaundice in adults. In this case, a surgeon may opt to remove the gallstone and remove any excess bile from the patient. Blood transfusions can be performed on infants and adults who experience sever jaundice. Aside from these cases, surgery is not necessary in the treatment of jaundice. In the case of a sever liver problem that is also accompanied by jaundice, the patient may be required to have a liver transplant.

Fever, also known as pyrexia, is any body temperature that is elevated above the normal temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. Body temperature fluctuates throughout the day, and can elevate due to normal everyday activities, such as exercise. However, an elevated temperature of 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit or higher is considered medically significant, and is usually due to an underlying medical condition.

How to Diagnose a Fever

If the body temperature is higher than the normal temperature of 98.6F, and cannot be explained by activity level, a fever is present. Diagnosing this is a simple matter of taking one’s temperature with a thermometer. Sometimes, depending on signs and symptoms accompanying the fever, a physical exam or other tests will be ran in order to determine if the cause of the fever is infection or something else. Once a determination of the underlying medical condition has been made, other tests (such as a blood test) may be required to confirm the diagnosis.

How to Determine Body Temperature

A thermometer is used to measure body temperature. The three most common methods are rectal; oral; tympanic (in the ear); and axillary (under the armpit). Rectal is most often used with infants and is the most accurate method. Oral is the next most accurate method, and is also the most widely used in children above the age of 4, and adults. The tympanic method requires a digital thermometer, and is often used in children over the age of 3. Axillary is the least accurate method.

Taking Temperatures

Rectal Method (infants)

• Use small amount of lubricant on end of rectal thermometer
• Place infant on belly and carefully separate buttocks cheeks
• Carefully insult the thermometer ½ – 1 inch into the infant’s rectum
• Keep hand cupped loosely on infant’s bottom and keep fingers on the thermometer so the thermometer and baby are still
• Wait for the thermometer to beep, or wait for three minutes if not using a digital thermometer

Oral Method

• Clean the tip of the thermometer with soap and warm water or rubbing alcohol. Rinse with cool water
• Put tip under tongue
• Close lips gently around thermometer
• Keep thermometer under tongue until thermometer beeps, or for three minutes if not using a digital thermometer

Tympanic Method

• Put a new, throw-away cover over the tip of the thermometer
• Keep head still
• For child, gently pull child’s ear straight back; for adult, gently pull ear up and then back
• Put covered thermometer tip into the ear opening. DO NOT push hard.
• Press the button to turn on the thermometer and hold the button until the thermometer beeps (or follow manufacturer instructions)
• Remove thermometer from the ear opening

Axillary Method

• Place thermometer in the armpit with arms crossed over chest
• Wait for the beep, or wait four to five minutes if not using a digital thermometer

Causes of Fever

Our body temperature is set by the hypothalamus, which is an area in the brain that acts as a thermostat for our bodies. The thermoregulatory set point is determined by balancing the heat produced by body tissues such as the liver and muscles, and the heat lost by the body.

The thermoregulatory set point is increased in response to threats, such as bacterial or viral infections, resulting in a higher body temperature as the body directs blood away from the skin to decrease heat loss. When the fever occurs, there are feelings of chilliness, stiffness and shivering caused by the body generating heat until the blood around the hypothalamus reaches the new, elevated set point. When the body temperature then begins to return to normal, there is often sweating as the body attempts to get rid of the excess heat.

The most common cause of a fever is infections, such as the flu or a cold. However, other possibilities include

• inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis
• extreme sunburn
• heat exhaustion
• surgery
• heart attack
• hemorrhage
• hyperthyroidism
• lupus
• inflammatory bowel disease
• malignant tumor or some form of kidney cancer
• side effect of some immunizations
• side effect of some medications

Symptoms of Fever

• dehydration
• general weakness
• headache
• inability to concentrate
• loss of appetite
• muscle aches
• sweating
• trembling, shivering

High fevers between 103F and 106F may cause

• confusion
• convulsions
• hallucinations
• irritability

Febrile Seizures

Children under the age of 5 can experience fever induced seizures, otherwise known as febrile seizures. A febrile seizure occurs when a child’s temperature rises or falls quickly. The signs of a febrile seizure include convulsions and a brief loss of consciousness.

Febrile seizures occur in approximately 3% of children between the ages of 18 months and 3 years. Of those children, 1/3 will have another seizure with febrile episode. These seizures do not generally cause long term side effects or damage to the nervous system

When to Seek Medical Attention

Low fevers are generally not cause for alarm. In fact, if the fever does not cause discomfort and there are no troubling symptoms accompanying a low fever, it should go untreated to allow the body’s natural defenses to combat the underlying illness. However, there are times when medical attention is necessary.

Medical attention should be sought when

• temperature is 104F or higher (seek IMMEDIATE medical attention! A temperature this high can lead to delirium and convulsions)
• a child under 3 months of age has a temperature of 101F or higher
• infant refuses to eat or drink
• fever in infant is accompanied by unexplained irritability, or unusual crying during a diaper change or when moved
• fever in infant is accompanied by lethargy and unresponsiveness
• fever in a child occurs after being left in a hot car
• there is a history of cancer, HIV, AIDS, heart disease, diabetes, or other serious illness
• other symptoms suggest major illness
• fever is sustained for more than 3 days

Risk Factors

As fevers are usually signs of an underlying medical condition, the risk factors for a fever go hand in hand with the risk factors for the underlying medical condition. Exposure to illness, family history of more serious ailments causing fever, and a weakened immune system are all risk factors for contracting a illness, and thus for experiencing a fever. The exact factors putting individuals at risk for developing a fever depend greatly on the cause of the underlying medical condition that causes the fever.

How to Prevent a Fever

In order to prevent a fever, exposure to underlying medical conditions must be reduced. The most effective way to reduce exposure to the underlying medical conditions causing fever is to wash hands frequently, particularly before eating, after using the restroom, after exposure to a crowd or someone who is sick, and after petting animals.

Developing good hand washing practices is imperative to prevention, and should be taught to children as soon as possible.

Avoiding touching the “T-zone” of your face—eyes, nose, mouth—helps to prevent fever by reducing the spreading of viral infections.

In addition to hand washing and avoiding touching the “T-zone” of your face, covering your mouth when coughing and nose when sneezing helps to prevent the transmission of infection, and thus prevents fever.

Three rules to prevention

1. Wash hands frequently
2. Cover your cough and sneeze
3. Avoid the “T-zone”

Treatment

High-grade temperatures, as opposed to low-grade, may be treated to lower their severity. The treatment for fever depends greatly on the underlying medical condition causing the fever. If the underlying medical condition is a bacterial infection, prescription medications such as antibiotics will be prescribed.

However, antibiotics are ineffective against viral infections. For any underlying illness causing the fever that cannot be treated with prescription medications, over-the-counter medications or home remedies may be used. It is important to note that these over-the-counter medications and home remedies do not cure the fever or the underlying medical ailment. Rather, these treatments alleviate the symptoms of the fever.

Over-the-counter medications

Over-the-counter medications used to treat a fever include acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil or Motrin), and aspirin. These help to lower a high fever, but will not cure it. Acetaminophen should not be used if the person with a fever has liver disease. Adults may take 2 extra strength tablets (totaling 1000 mg) every 4-6 hours.

Children should seek medical advice. Ibuprofen is safe for children over 6 months in age, though medical advice should be sought regarding proper dosage. Adults may take 2-3 200mg tablets every six hours. Aspirin should NOT be used with children or adolescents, due to concerns with a serious illness called Reyes Syndrome. Aspirin is, however, safe for adults.

Home Remedies

There are various home remedies that, while they will not cure the underlying illness, will help the fever run its course, and make a person suffering from a fever feel better

• Stay hydrated. Drink water, juice, or broth. Fever causes fluid loss and dehydration so it is important to keep sipping something in order to keep the body hydrated.
• Rest. Activity can raise body temperature, so plenty of rest is recommended to help body temperature return to normal
• Soak in lukewarm water. Tepid water (85F) baths may help bring temperature down. Soak for 5-10 minutes for a cooling effect. Do not use alcohol, and if the bath causes shivering, stop the bath. Shivering raises the body’s temperature, so will have an opposite effect on the fever.
• Herbal Tea. Various recipes of tea are available that claim to aid in the reduction of a fever. These include Basil Leaf Tea drank 3-4 times per day during the fever; tea with ½ teaspoon cinnamon powder, 2 cardamoms, and 2 teaspoons ginger boiled well; 2-3 teaspoons dry roasted fenugreek seed powder boiled and strained with a drop of butter added; and 10 grams raisins and ginger boiled in 200 ml water until it is reduced to 50 ml, with the water then strained and drank.
• Herbs. Various herbs, independent of the herbal tea, are thought to be good treatments for fever. 7-8 tulsi leaves (basil) and 3-4 peppercorns chewed together is supposed to help a fever, as is a teaspoon of honey with 2-3 drops of ginger juice.

While high-grade fevers may be treated to alleviate the symptoms of the fever, low-grade fevers should not be treated with either over-the-counter medications or home remedies. Treating low-grade fevers may extend the length of the illness and interfere with the body’s immune response. In these cases, allowing the body to combat the illness is the best option.

While fevers are the body’s natural defense against illness, it is important to remember that sometimes our body needs a little help. Don’t put off seeking medical attention if the fever is accompanied by worrisome symptoms, if the fever is exceptionally high, or if the fever does not decrease after taking medication.